Tourism impacts

The Impacts ofTourismBy Glenn KreagFor a tourism-based economy to sustain itself in local communities, theresidents must be willing partners in the process. Their attitudestoward tourism and perceptions of its impact on community life mustbe continually assessed. (Allen et al. 1988)The long-term sustainability of tourism rests on the ability of community leaders andtourism professionals to maximize its benefits and minimize its costs.This fact sheet tabulates 87 tourism impacts within seven categoriesand divides the sources of tourism impacts into tourist-basedcauses and destination-based causes. This information, whichwas distilled from recent tourism research, provides aframework for discussions, directions, and developmentregarding tourism. Formally addressing the impacts oftourism facilitates planning that helps a communitycreate a sustainable tourism industry.IntroductionOverviewFor decades tourism industry growth has been amajor contributor to increased economic activitythroughout the U.S. and the world. It has createdjobs in both large and small communities and is amajor industry in many places. It is the dominanteconomic activity in some communities. Yet, theimpacts of tourism to a community are not widelyunderstood – even where tourism is growingdramatically and should be of the greatest interestor concern.Most people think of tourism in terms of economicimpacts, jobs, and taxes. However, the range ofimpacts from tourism is broad and often influencesareas beyond those commonly associated with tourism.Leaders as well as residents who understand the potentialimpacts of tourism can integrate this industry into theircommunity in the most positive way.2Understanding Tourism Conf lictsDifferent groups are often concerned about different tourism impacts. To generalize,where one group embraces the e c o n o m i c impacts of tourism, another group experiencessocial and cultural i m p a c t s , while another is affected by tourism’s e n v i r o n m e n t a limpacts. In theory, the interests of each group could be completely separate, as inFigure 1a. For example, Group A could include the business community and peoplewho are in need of the jobs offered by tourism. Group B might include residents whofeel displaced by an influx of visitors. Group C could be local outdoor enthusiastsconcerned about changes in natural resources. In such a case, each group would haveThe impacts of tourism can be sorted into seven general categories:1. Economic2. Environmental3. Social and cultural4. Crowding and congestion5. Services6. Taxes7. Community attitudeEach category includes positive and negative impacts. Not all impacts are applicable toevery community because conditions or resources differ. Community and tourismleaders must balance an array of impacts that may either improve or negatively affectcommunities and their residents. Leaders must be sensitive and visionary, and mustavoid the temptation of glossing over certain difficulties tourism development creates.Tourism leaders must also balance the opportunities and concerns of all communitysectors by working against conditions where positive impacts benefit one part of thecommunity (geographic or social) and negative impacts hurt another.Conversely, community sensitivity to tourism means avoiding undue burdens on theindustry that could thwart its success. Local leaders should not expect tourism to solveall community problems. Tourism is just one element of a community. While creativestrategic development of tourism amenities and services can enhance the communityor correct local deficiencies, tourism, like all business development, must assure thatits products (attractions and services) attract customers. Overbearing rules andrestrictions, and overburdening taxes can make tourism businesses less attractive orcompetitive.3completely different outlookson tourism. Ideally, all groupscould be positively affected andwould support the community’stourism efforts. However, whengroup interests are divergent,differing perspectives canmake consensus on tourismdevelopment difficult.In most cases, groups withinterests in one area of tourismwill also have interests orconcerns about other tourism

impacts as diagramed in Figure1b. In these situations, thereare common areas of interestand a greater likelihood thateach group will show moreappreciation for the concerns ofthe other groups. Findingcommonality provides a startingpoint for resolving tourismissues.Specific plans and actions canincrease tourism’s benefits ordecrease the gravity of a negative impact. It is important for communities to understandthe wide scope of impacts and endeavor to agree on what positive impacts toemphasize. It is wise to acknowledge and identify possible negative impacts so actionscan be taken to minimize or prevent them. A clear statement of the community’s visionof tourism should be an integral part of a community’s comprehensive plan. Activeplanning directs tourism toward the goals of the community, clarifying tourism’s roleand uniting multiple interests.The Role of PlanningFigure 1. Interest in Tourism ImpactsGroup CEconomicImpactsEnvironmentalImpactsSocial & CulturalImpactsEconomicImpactsEnvironmentalImpactsSocial &CulturalImpactsGroup AGroup CGroup B Group AGroup B4Tourism ImpactsA goal of developing the tourism industry in a community is maximizingselected positive impacts while minimizing potential negative impacts.First, it is essential to identify the possible impacts. To u r i s mresearchers have identified a large number of impacts. Groupingthe impacts into categories shows the types of impacts that couldresult from developing tourism in a community. The followingtables list a range of important tourism impacts in a conciseformat. Readers needing additional information about specificimpacts should contact appropriate professionals or consulttourism texts and research papers.A community will not experience every impact. Some aredependent on particular natural resource features (mountains,coral reefs) or development and spatial patterns (special“tourist zones”). Others relate to the social condition of thec o m m u n i t y, particularly the ability to culturally or socially connectwith tourists. Still others relate to types and intensity of tourismdevelopments, i.e., approval or hostility toward tourist activities.The following tables are extensive but not all-inclusive.Planning is not enough. Active implementation and management of plans and promptattention to emerging tourism issues will maximize positive and minimize negativeimpacts. Monitoring and addressing community attitudes should be an ongoing partof the management effort. Good monitoring efforts can identify trouble areas and giveleaders an opportunity to defuse community reactions and make timely changes beforea crisis occurs. Unfortunately, few communities are so proactive.5Understanding that tourism development may result in many and complex impactssuggests that local elected officials, the tourism industry, and community residentsneed to work cooperatively and carefully to plan for its growth and development.Planning can help create an industry that enhances a community with minimal costsand disruptions in other aspects of community life. Having broad communityinvolvement and embracing different perspectives during planning helps identify andresolve concerns that would otherwise create problems later.EconomicTourism increases employment opportunities. Additional jobs, ranging from low-wageentry-level to high-paying professional positions in management and technical fields,generate income and raise standards of living. Particularly in rural areas, thediversification created by tourism helps communities that are possibly dependent ononly one industry. As tourism grows, additional opportunities are created for investment,development, and infrastructure spending. Tourism often induces improvementsElaboration of Tourism ImpactsECONOMICw Increases price of goods and servicesw Increases price of land and housingw Increases cost of livingw Increases potential for imported laborw Cost for additional infrastructure(water, sewer, power, fuel, medical, etc.)w Increases road maintenance andtransportation systems costsw Seasonal tourism creates high-risk,under- or unemployment issuesw Competition for land with other (highervalue)economic usesw Profits may be exported by non-localownersw Jobs may pay low wagesw Contributes to income and standard of
livingw Improves local economyw Increases employment opportunitiesw Improves investment, development, andinfrastructure spendingw Increases tax revenuesw Improves public utilities infrastructurew Improves transport infrastructurew Increases opportunities for shoppingw Economic impact (direct, indirect,induced spending) is widespread in thecommunityw Creates new business opportunities6in public utilities such as water, sewer, sidewalks, lighting, parking, public restrooms,litter control, and landscaping. Such improvements benefit tourists and residentsalike. Likewise, tourism encourages improvements in transport infrastructureresulting in upgraded roads, airports, public transportation, and non-traditionaltransportation (e.g., trails). Tourism encourages new elements to join the retail mix,increasing opportunities for shopping and adding healthy competitiveness. It oftenincreases a community’s tax revenues. Lodging and sales taxes most notablyincrease but additional tax revenues include air travel and other transportationtaxes, business taxes, and fuel taxes. New jobs generate more income taxrevenues.When considering the economic impacts of tourism, it is essential tounderstand that tourism businesses often include a significantnumber of low-paying jobs, often at minimum wage or less. T h e s ejobs are often seasonal, causing under-employment or unemploymentduring off-seasons. Labor may be imported, rather thanhired locally, especially if particular skills or expertise is required,or if local labor is unavailable. Some tourism-related businessesare volatile and high-risk ventures that are unsustainable.Greater demand for goods, services, land, and housing mayincrease prices that in turn will increase the cost of living.Tourism businesses may claim land that could have higher- v a l u eor other uses. Additionally, non-local owners and corporationsmay export profits out of the community. The community mayhave to generate funds (possibly through increased taxes) tomaintain roads and transportation systems that have becomemore heavily used. Similarly, if additional infrastructure (water,s e w e r, power, fuel, medical, etc.) is required, additional taxes mayalso be needed to pay for them.EnvironmentalAreas with high-value natural resources, like oceans, lakes, waterfalls,mountains, unique flora and fauna, and great scenic beauty attracttourists and new residents (in-migrants) who seek emotional and spiritualconnections with nature. Because these people value nature, selected naturalenvironments are preserved, protected, and kept from further ecological decline.Lands that could be developed can generate income by accommodating the recreationalactivities of visitors. Tourist income often makes it possible to preserve and restorehistoric buildings and monuments. Improvements in the area’s appearance through7cleanup or repairs and the addition of public art such asmurals, water fountains, and monuments (part of making acommunity ready for tourism) benefit visitors and residentsalike. Tourism is generally considered a “clean” industry,one that is based on hotels, restaurants, shops andattractions, instead of factories.Tourism can also degrade an environment. Visitors generatewaste and pollution (air, water, solid waste, noise, andvisual). Natural resource attractions can be jeopardizedthrough improper uses or overuse. Providing touristservices can alter the landscape’s appearance. For instance,visual pollution may occur from billboard proliferation. Astourism develops, demand for land increases, especially forprime locations like beachfronts, special views, andmountains. Without forethought, natural landscape andopen space can be lost. The destruction or loss of flora andfauna can happen when desirable plants and animals arecollected for sale or the land is trampled. Tourists or thebusinesses that cater to them often remove plants, animals,rocks, fossils, coral, and cultural or historical artifacts froman area. Uncontrolled visitation or overuse by visitors candegrade landscapes, historic sites, and monuments. Wherewater is scarce, tourists can overwhelm the available supply.Travelers can also inadvertently introduce nonindigenousspecies, as can increases in the trade of animals and plants.A constant stream of visitors and domestic pets may disruptwildlife by disturbing their breeding cycles and alteringnatural behaviors.Social and CulturalThe social and cultural ramifications of tourism warrant
careful consideration, as impacts can either become assetsor detriments to communities. Influxes of tourists bringdiverse values to the community and influence behaviorsand family life. Individuals and the collective community might try to please touristsor adopt tourist behaviors. Interactions between residents and tourists can impactcreative expression by providing new opportunities (positive) or by stifling individualityENVIRONMENTALw Pollution (air, water, noise, solid waste,and visual)w Loss of natural landscape andagricultural lands to tourismdevelopmentw Loss of open spacew Destruction of flora and fauna(including collection of plants, animals,rocks, coral, or artifacts by or fortourists)w Degradation of landscape, historic sites,and monumentsw Water shortagesw Introduction of exotic speciesw Disruption of wildlife breeding cyclesand behaviorsw Protection of selected naturalenvironments or prevention of furtherecological declinew Preservation of historic buildings andmonumentsw Improvement of the area’s appearance(visual and aesthetic)w A “clean” industry (no smokestacks)8with new restrictions (negative). Increased tourism can push a community to adopt adifferent moral conduct such as improved understanding between sexes (positive) orincreased illicit drug use (negative). Safety and health facilities and staffing tend toincrease at the same time safety problems such as crime and accidents increase. Tr a d i t i o n a lceremonies may be renewed and revived by tourist interest or lost in alternative activities.Community organizations can be invigorated by facing the opportunities of tourism oroverwhelmed by its associated problems. Calamities such as natural disasters, energyshortages, terrorism, political upheaval, disease outbreak, a chemical spill, or evenwidespread negative publicity could shut down tourism abruptly but sometimes canattract curious visitors.Tourism can improve the quality of life in an area by increasing the number of attractions,recreational opportunities, and services. Tourism offers residents opportunities tomeet interesting people, make friendships, learn about the world, and expose themselvesto new perspectives. Experiencing different cultural practices enriches experiences,broadens horizons, and increases insight and appreciation for different approaches toliving. Often, dwindling interest in host cultures is revived by reawakening culturalheritage as part of tourism development, which increases demand for historical andcultural exhibits. This interest by tourists in local culture and history p r o v i d e sSOCIAL AND CULTURALw Excessive drinking, alcoholism, gamblingw Increased underage drinkingw Crime, drugs, prostitutionw Increased smugglingw Language and cultural effectsw Unwanted lifestyle changesw Displacement of residents for tourismdevelopmentw Negative changes in values and customsw Family disruptionw Exclusion of locals from naturalresourcesw New cliques modify social structurew Natural, political, and public relationscalamitiesw Improves quality of lifew Facilitates meeting visitors (educationalexperience)w Positive changes in values and customsw Promotes cultural exchangew Improves understanding of differentcommunitiesw Preserves cultural identity of hostpopulationw Increases demand for historical andcultural exhibitsw Greater tolerance of social differencesw Satisfaction of psychological needs9opportunities to support preservation of historical artifacts and architecture. By learningmore about others, their differences become less threatening and more interesting. Atthe same time, tourism often promotes higher levels of psychological satisfaction fromopportunities created by tourism development and through interactions with travelers.Tourism can come to a community with a dark social and cultural side, too. Illegalactivities tend to increase in the relaxed atmosphere of tourist areas. Increased underagedrinking can become a problem especially in beach communities, areas with festivalsinvolving alcohol, and ski villages. It is easier to be anonymous where strangers aretaken for granted; bustling tourist traffic can increase the presence of smugglers andbuyers of smuggled products. Lifestyle changes such as alterations in local travelpatterns to avoid tourist congestion and the avoidance of downtown shopping candamage a community socially and culturally. Hotels, restaurants, and shops can push
tourism development into residential areas, forcing changes in the physical structureof a community. Development of tourist facilities in prime locations may cause localsto be or feel excluded from those resources. As local ethnic culture alters to fit the needsof tourism, language and cultural practices may change. In places where longer- t e r mvisitors tend to congregate, social cliques, such as condo tourists or RVers, may be atodds with local interests and work to influence local issues. The “demonstration effect”of tourists (residents adopting tourist behaviors) and the addition of tourist facilitiesmay alter customs, such as dating habits, especially those of a more structured ortraditional culture. The potential of meeting and marrying non-local mates may createfamily stress.10Crowding and CongestionPeople congregate in attractive places. Tourism oftendevelops around specific locations and concentratesthere, providing growth yet avoiding sprawl. Historicbuildings and grounds, which might otherwise slowlydeteriorate, have great appeal for tourism developmentand can often be renovated to suit the industry.As people congregate, congestion and crowding producesstress, annoyance, anger, and other negative attitudes.Hordes of visitors may impede local businesses, preventresidents from accomplishing normal activities, andcompete for space. Tourism construction, especiallyhotels, may be inappropriate in scale and style withrespect to other structures and the landscape. In someareas, recreational second homes and condominiumdevelopments create major crowding and congestionproblems.ServicesTourism creates opportunities to develop new amenitiesand recreation facilities that would not otherwise beviable in a community. Tourist expectations canupgrade service by local shops, restaurants, and othercommerce operators. Tourist traffic in a communitycreates an opportunity for upgraded fire, police, andmedical protection that also benefits residents.Traditional services may be forced out or relocated dueto competition with tourist interests. Supply shortagesmay occur, temporarily, seasonally, or chronically. Wa t e r,p o w e r, fuel, and other shortages may be experienced withincreased pressure on the infrastructure.TaxesIncreased retail activity from restaurants and touristshopping will add state and local sales tax revenue.Lodging tax revenue to the city (or state) shouldincrease since travelers account for virtually all lodging t a xCROWDING AND CONGESTIONw Minimizes sprawlw Concentrates tourist facilitiesw Old buildings reused for tourismSERVICESw Neglect of non-tourist recreationfacilitiesw Effects of competitionw Shortage of goods and servicesw Increases pressure on infrastructurew Increases availability of recreationfacilities and opportunitiesw Better standard of services by shops,restaurants, and other commercew Improves quality of fire protectionw Improves quality of police protectionw Congestion including interference withother businessesw Overcrowding – exceeding area capacityw Conflictw Overpowering building size and style11receipts. Increased tax burdens to expand infrastructureand public services will be passed on to property ownersthrough increased property taxes.Community AttitudeVisitor interest and satisfaction in the community is asource of local pride. Seeing visitor interest makes localresidents more appreciative of local resources that areoften taken for granted. As tourism develops, localresidents will enjoy more facilities and a greater rangeof choices. Tourism activities and events tend to makeliving in a place more interesting and exciting.H o w e v e r, heightened tension and community divisivenesscan occur over tourism development, pitting tourismsupporters against non-supporters. Also, tensionbetween residents and tourists can occur. People willoften feel stressed over the new, increasingly hecticcommunity and personal pace of life. They may claimthe result is no better than before or perhaps evenworse. Where culture is part of the tourist attractions,over-amplification of cultural traits and creation of “new”cultural traits to satisfy tourist tastes may create a phonyculture. Residents may experience a sense of exclusionand alienation over planning and development concerns.They may feel a loss of control over the community’s
future as “outsiders” take over establishments and newdevelopment. Over-dependence on non-local developersand an influx of outside businesses creates a sense thatthe community is being manipulated and exploited byoutsiders for the sole benefit of those developers orbusiness people. Hotels built in monolithic cubes orrestaurants with standardized franchise designs mightclash with local standards and disrupt the aestheticappearance of the community, damage unique communityc h a r a c t e r, and spread “sameness.”TAXESw Additional state and local sales taxrevenuew Lodging tax revenue to city (or state)w Increases property taxesCOMMUNITY ATTITUDEw Heightens community divisivenessw Increasingly hectic community andpersonal lifew Creates a phony folk culturew Residents experience sense of exclusionand alienation over planning anddevelopment concernsw Feeling of loss of control overcommunity future (caused by outsiderdevelopment)w New building styles fail to “fit”communityw Heightens pride in communityw Greater appreciation of local resourcesw More facilities and range of choicesavailablew More interesting and exciting place tolive12Knowing the nature of tourism impacts won’t automatically lead to solutions. It isequally important to identify the sources of these impacts (see table below) and howthey influence interactions between tourists and residents, the host community, andthe environment. Researchers generally divide these impact sources into two groups:tourist factors and destination factors. Tourist factors are those which tourists bringto the destination and include such elements as demographic characteristics, socialdifferences, and numbers of visitors. Destination factors are those that are part of thedestination itself, such as travel linkage and circulation, local acceptance of tourism,and local vitality and leadership.Sources of ImpactsFactors influencing interactions betweentourists, residents, host community, and environmentw Local economic conditionw Diversification of the economyw Degree of involvement in tourismw Attitudes of tourism leadersw Spatial characteristics of tourismdevelopmentw Viability of the host culturew History of stability in the communityw Pace of tourism developmentw Fragility of the environment used bytouristsw Public transportation optionsw Number and type of visitorsw Length of stayw Mass arrivals and departuresw Links to community residentsw Ethnic/racial characteristicsw Economic characteristicsw Activities selectedw Ability to speak local language/accentsw “Demonstration effect” of tourists13Tourist FactorsNumber and type of visitorsNumbers: small numbers of tourists are often relativelyunobtrusive and may be a curiosity or an interestingdiversion for community residents. As visitor numbersincrease and they become commonplace, locals may ignorethem. When the number of visitors reaches a point thatresidents feel a sense of displacement, obstruction, loss ofcommunity, or safety threat, resentment and resistancemay result.Demographics: family status, age, education, profession,etc., influence the actions and activities of tourists andtheir local visibility.Transportation: private vehicle or rental car, bus, train, air,or passenger ship dictates tourists’ movements, influenceswhether choices are pre-selected, and affects the ease ofreaching attractions and services.Length of stayDay trips have less economic impact.Short (2-5 day) stays in a community maximize per-dayeconomic impact for regional driving destinations, i.e.,tourist spending is maximized, but the pace can be hectic.Tourists who stay longer have wider range of needs andmay spread the direct economic impact more broadly inthe community. Seasonal visitors (1-6 months) may takemore interest in non-tourism community matters.Annual events can create a large economic impact in ashort period.Mass arrivals and departuresHow and when people arrive (passenger ship, opening of festival) and departinfluences traffic congestion and the availability of attractions and servicesto tourists.Smaller lodgings and restaurants can’t accommodate large groups.Transportation options and availability may limit the choice of attractionsand services.nnnnn
nnnnn14Links to community residentsReduced economic impact when staying with friends or relatives.Better understanding of community values.High potential for repeat visitation.Ethnic/racial characteristicsWhen the tourist population differs greatly in ethnic or racial origin oreconomic status from the local population, more consideration of residentconcerns is needed to reduce the potential for resentment, social conflict, andcrime. Careful planning and ongoing education can reduce points of conflict.Economic characteristicsInfluences spending choices.Higher incomes may give tourists greater access to environment and havehigher negative impact on the environment.Activities selectedEducational, cultural, and historical tourism often has lower social andenvironmental impact.Recreational activities may have a greater impact on the environment.Entertainment activities may conflict with the social values of local residents.Ability to speak local language/accentsPerceived as making more meaningful connections with local people andculture.“Demonstration effect” of touristsLocal residents copying behaviors of tourists can add new dimensions tolocal culture but sometimes the behavior is not appropriate to local values.Locals copying negative behavior of vacationers (excessive drinking,inappropriate dress, casual sex, etc.) create social problems.Destination FactorsLocal economic stateTroubled economies may benefit from tourism. However, governmentofficials should plan so that new tourism developments are sustainable.Towns with strong economies can look for tourism that complements othernnnnnnnnnnnnnn15community goals such as preservation of historic buildings, creation ofrecreational amenities, and expansion of food/lodging options.Diversification of the economyEconomic diversity helps reduce the influence of negative impacts to thehost community. If tourism has a poor year, other economic activities mayoffset the impact and vice versa.Degree of local involvement in tourism and attitudes of tourism leadersLocal involvement helps align tourism with the attitudes of therest of the community. Local ownership and management oftourism businesses keep profits from leaving the community.In most cases, if tourism businesses are cooperative inresponding to residents’ concerns, the industry will havestrong local support.Spatial characteristics of tourism developmentSeparation of active tourist areas from residentialareas reduces conflict.Shared commercial areas. A mix of resident-orientedand tourist-oriented businesses adds to the vibrancyof the retail area. Domination of tourist-orientedbusinesses pushes locals elsewhere and may createresentment.Shared cultural or recreational amenities (parks, m u s e u m s ,plazas, beaches, gardens) can be more successful witht o u r i s m .Tourist strips can clog streets and may restrict residentaccess to public resources, especially beaches and shorelines.Gated or exclusionary tourist developments can create a classstructure and local resentment.Viability of the host cultureA strong and active local culture combats tourism’s tendency to change acommunity.Active programs to educate tourists in local cultural practices (especiallypublic taboos) help reduce conflicts.Pride in culture influences tourists to honor local customs and adhere tocultural restrictions.nnnnnnnnnn16History of stability in the communityStrong local economies give leaders more options in influencing tourism developmentto fit the community.Strong community leaders and active planning can place tourism more appropriatelywithin the community’s geography and can support suitable tourismprojects while resisting inappropriate ones.Pace of tourism developmentSlower development provides time for residents and leaders to reassess tourismgrowth and make changes that better serve the community. Rapid development canstrain a community’s infrastructure and lead to serious resident dissatisfaction.Negative environmental impacts are also more likely.Fragility of the environment used by touristsMany of the most sought-after environments for tourism are also the most fragile.Extra effort to plan appropriate access and use of fragile environments helps insuretheir long-term viability and continued attractiveness for tourism.Public transportation options
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