Rocky mountains

Rocky Mountains

Rocky Mountains or Rockies, great chain of rugged mountainranges in western North America, extending from central New Mexico tonortheastern British Columbia, a distance of about 3220 km (about 2000 mi).The Great Basin and the Rocky Mountain Trench, a valley running fromnorthwestern Montana to northern British Columbia, border the Rockies onthe east by the Great Plains and on the west. The Rocky Mountains form partof the Great, or Continental, Divide, which separates rivers draining intothe Atlantic or Arctic oceans from those flowing toward the Pacific Ocean.The Arkansas, Colorado, Columbia, Missouri, Rio Grande, Saskatchewan, andSnake rivers rise in the Rockies. The Rockies may be divided into fourprincipal sections—Southern, Central, Northern, and Canadian. The SouthernRockies, which include the system’s broadest and highest regions, extendfrom central New Mexico, through Colorado, to the Great Divide, or Wyoming,Basin, in southern Wyoming. This section, which encompasses Rocky MountainNational Park, is composed chiefly of two northern-southern belts ofmountain ranges with several basins, or parks, between the belts. Thecomponent parts include the Sanger de Crisco and Laramie mountains and theFront Range, in the east, and the San Juan Mountains and the Swatch andPark ranges, in the west. The Southern Rockies include the chain’s loftiestpoint, Mount Elbert (4399 m/14,433 ft high), in central Colorado. More than50 other peaks of the Rockies rising above 4267 m (14,000 ft) are inColorado; these include Longs Peak (4345 m/14,255 ft high) and Pikes Peak(4301 m/14,110 ft high). The Central Rockies are in northeastern Utah,western Wyoming, eastern Idaho, and southern Montana. They encompass theBighorn; Bear tooth, and Unite Mountains and the Absaroka, Wind River, SaltRiver, Teton, Snake River, and Wasatch ranges. The Unite Mountains are theonly major portion of the Rockies that extends east west rather than northsouth. Among the peaks of the Central Rockies, which include Grand Eton andYellowstone national parks, are Gannett Peak (4207 m/13,804 ft high), GrandEton (4197 m/13,771 ft high), and Fremont Peak (4185 m/13,730 ft high). TheNorthern Rockies are in northern Idaho, western Montana, and northeasternWashington. They include the Saw tooth, Cabinet, Salmon River, andClearwater Mountains and the Bitterroot Range. The loftiest points in thesection, which includes Glacier National Park, are Granite Peak (3901m/12,799 ft high) and Borax Peak (3859 m/12,662 ft high). The CanadianRockies, located in southwestern Alberta and eastern British Columbia, arecomposed of a relatively narrow belt of mountain ranges that terminates atthe Lizard River lowland in northeastern British Columbia. The peaks of thesection, which takes in Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, Waterton Lakes, and YohoNational Parks, include Mount Robson (3954 m/12,972 ft high), MountColumbia (3747 m/12,294 ft high), and The Twins (3734 m/12,251 ft high).Slopes generally are very steep, and there are numerous glaciers. The RockyMountains are a geologically complex system with jagged peaks as well asalmost flat-topped elevations. The Rockies were formed mainly by crustaluplifts in comparatively recent times, during the late Cretaceous and earlyTertiary periods, and later were reshaped by glaciation during thePleistocene Epoch. Today the Rockies receive moderate amounts ofprecipitation, most of which occurs in the winter. Lower levels are coveredchiefly by grassland, which gives way to extensive forests, principally ofconifers. Above the woodland is a zone of grasses and scattered shrubs.Most peaks have little vegetation around the summit, and some have a year-round cap of snow and ice. The Rockies are sparsely populated for the mostpart and contain few cities. The principal economic resources of themountains are minerals, such as coal, copper, gold, iron ore, lead,molybdenum, petroleum and natural gas, silver, and zinc. Important miningcenters include Leadville and Climax, Colorado; Atlantic City, Wyoming;Kellogg, Idaho; Butte, Montana; and Fernie and Kimberley, British Columbia.Major forest products industries, especially lumbering, are concentrated inthe Northern and Canadian Rockies, and large numbers of sheep and cattleare raised in the Rockies of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. The chain hasmany centers for outdoor recreation and tourism. Bighorn Mountains,isolated range of the Rocky Mountains, lying east of the Bighorn River andextending generally north from central Wyoming into southern Montana. Therange averages more than 2134 m (7000 ft) in elevation; the highest summitis Cloud Peak (4019 m/13,187 ft) in Wyoming. Along the upper levels arelarge coniferous forests, which are part of Bighorn National Forest.Bitterroot Range, mountain range, northwestern United States, a chain ofthe Rocky Mountains, extending about 700 km (about 435 mi) along theMontana-Idaho border. Rugged and forested, with an average elevation of2740 m (about 9000 ft), it remains one of the most inaccessible areas inthe United States. In 1805 the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled westthrough Lolo Pass (1595 m/5233 ft) in the range. Guadalupe Mountains,mountain range, southwestern United States, a branch of the Rocky

Mountains, extending from southern New Mexico to western Texas. GuadalupePeak (2667 m/8749 ft above sea level), the highest in the chain, is inTexas. Laramie Mountains, range of the Rocky Mountains, western UnitedStates, extending from southeastern Wyoming into northern Colorado. Thehighest point, Laramie Peak, is 3131 m (10,272 ft) above sea level. Coal,the principal mineral, is found in the foothills. San Juan Mountains,mountain range, southwestern United States, in southwestern Colorado andnorthwestern New Mexico. Part of the Rocky Mountains, it is of volcanicorigin and is rich in minerals. The highest peaks are in Colorado andinclude Uncompahgre Peak (4361 m/14,309 ft), Mount Sneffels (4313 m/14,150ft), and Wetterhorn Peak (4272 m/14,017 ft). Sangre de Cristo Mountains,mountain range, western United States, the southernmost range of the RockyMountains, in south central Colorado and north central New Mexico. The veryhigh and narrow range extends southeast and south for about 354 km (220mi), from Salida, Colorado, to Santa Fe County, New Mexico. Blanca Peak(4372 m/14,345 ft), in Colorado, is one of the highest mountains of theRockies. Sawatch Range, mountain range, central Colorado, a branch of theRocky Mountains. The range extends for about 177 km (about 110 mi) andreaches a height of 4399 m (14,433 ft) at Mount Elbert, the highest pointin the state. Teton (mountain range), range of the Rocky Mountains, innorthwestern Wyoming, and southwestern Idaho, just south of YellowstoneNational Park, west of Jackson Lake and the Snake River. The highest peakis Grand Teton (4197 m/13,771 ft), located in Grand Teton National Park.Teton Pass (2569 m/8429 ft) and Phillips Pass (3261 m/10,700 ft) are justsouth of the park. Uinta Mountains, mountain range, western United States,mainly in northeastern Utah and partly in southwestern Wyoming, part of theRocky Mountains. The peaks of the Uinta Mountains are mostly flat becauseof erosion by glaciers and the waters of the Yampa and Green rivers. Therange is about 240 km (about 150 mi) long and 48 to 64 km (30 to 40 mi)wide. The highest elevation is Kings Peak, which is 4123 m (13,528 ft) highand is also the highest point in Utah. Wasatch Range, mountain range,western United States, in the Rocky Mountain system. The range is about 240km (about 150 mi) long; part of the Central Rockies, it begins insoutheastern Idaho and runs southward, east of the Great Salt Lake andthrough the center of Utah, gradually ending in southwestern Utah. Theaverage height of the range is about 3050 m (about 10,000 ft), and thehighest peak, Mount Nebo, is 3620 m (11,877 ft) high. Wind River Range,range of the Rocky Mountains, western Wyoming, forming part of theContinental Divide. The Green River rises in the southwestern slope of therange, and many tributaries of the Wind River flow off on the northeasternside. The range contains Fremont Peak (4185 m/13,730 ft) and Gannett Peak(4207 m/13,804 ft); the latter is the highest point in Wyoming. Arkansas(river, United States), river, western U.S., a major tributary of theMississippi River, 2350 km (1460 mi) long. Rising in central Colorado, inthe Sawatch Range of the Rocky Mountains, at an altitude of about 4270 m(about 14,000 ft), the river flows generally east and forms a turbulentstream passing over rocky beds and through deep canyons such as the RoyalGorge. As it flows through the plains of Kansas, the river broadens to awider, less turgid stream until it enters Oklahoma; at that point itreceives two chief tributaries, the Cimarron and the Canadian rivers.Except for a large northern bend in Kansas, the Arkansas River follows asoutheastern course, merging with the Mississippi River above ArkansasCity, Arkansas. The water levels of the river are extremely variable, andseveral dams have been built for flood control and irrigation and to createhydroelectric power; one of the most impressive, the John Martin Dam insoutheastern Colorado, was built in 1948. The Arkansas River NavigationSystem, completed in the early 1970s, made the river navigable to Tulsa,Oklahoma. Athabasca, river and lake, in western Canada, that form part ofthe Mackenzie River system. The Athabasca River, 1231 km (765 mi) long,begins in Jasper National Park in southwestern Alberta. Its source is theColumbia Icefield, high in the Rocky Mountains. The river flows northeastacross Alberta and empties through a shallow delta into Lake Athabasca innortheastern Alberta. The river was once an important route for furtraders. Lake Athabasca, which straddles the AlbertaSaskatchewan- border,is about 320 km (about 200 mi) long and covers about 7936 sq km (about 3064sq mi). Fort Chipewyan, which was built along the southwestern shore of thelake in 1788, became one of the region’s most important fur-trading posts.Today Lake Athabasca is used for commercial fishing. It is drained to thenorth by the Slave River. Large deposits of petroleum-bearing sand arelocated along the lower Athabasca River, near Fort McMurray. Long known butuntapped because of high extraction costs, the deposits are now mined usingnew technology and efficient methods. In 1994 the output amounted to one-quarter of Canada’s crude oil production. Canadian, also South Canadian,unnavigable river, southwestern United States, 1460 km (906 mi) long. TheCanadian River is formed in northeastern New Mexico by the union of severalbranches from the southern Rocky Mountains. The river flows south throughNew Mexico and then turns east, crossing the Texas Panhandle into Oklahoma.Following a meandering course, it finally joins the Arkansas River. Theriver’s only major tributary is the North Canadian River, 1260 km (784 mi)long, which runs almost parallel to the Canadian River in Oklahoma. Thetributary joins the Canadian River at Eufaula in eastern Oklahoma to formthe Eufaula Reservoir. In northeastern New Mexico, a semiarid region, theCanadian River provides an important water source at the Conchas Dam, aflood-control and irrigation project. Colorado (river, North America),river, in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, 2330 km (1450mi) long, the longest river west of the Rocky Mountains. The Colorado risesjust west of the Continental Divide, in northern Colorado, and, for thefirst 1600 km (about 1000 mi) of its course, passes through a series ofdeep gorges and canyons that were created by the eroding force of itscurrent. The river flows in a generally southwestern direction acrossColorado into southeastern Utah, where it joins its chief tributary, theGreen River. After crossing the northern portion of Arizona, the Coloradoflows west for 446 km (277 mi) through the majestic Grand Canyon. It thenflows in a generally southerly direction and forms the boundary betweenArizona and the states of Nevada and California. Near Yuma, Arizona, theriver crosses the international border into Mexico and flows for about 145km (90 mi) to its mouth on the Gulf of California, an inlet of the PacificOcean. Besides the Green River, the most important tributaries of theColorado include the Dolores and Gunnison rivers, in Colorado; the San JuanRiver, in Utah; and the Little Colorado and Gila rivers, in Arizona. Withits tributaries, the Colorado drains portions of seven states, a totalarea, in Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, andCalifornia, of about 626,800 sq km (about 242,000 sq mi) and 5180 sq km(2000 sq mi) more in Mexico. To control the tremendous flow of theColorado, particularly under flood conditions, an extensive series of dams,many of them constructed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, has been builtalong the river and its tributaries. Notable is the Hoover Dam, whichimpounds the river at the Black Canyon to form Lake Mead, one of thelargest artificial lakes in the world. The Glen Canyon Dam, in north-central Arizona just south of the Utah border, is the third highest dam inthe U.S. In addition to regulating the flow of water, dams on the Coloradoharness hydroelectric power and provide storage reservoirs for irrigationprojects. As such, they have been instrumental in reclaiming the semiaridand arid regions through which the river flows. The Imperial Valley ofsouthern California is an excellent example of land reclaimed by the watersof the Colorado. A number of reservoirs have been incorporated intonational recreation areas. The Glen Canyon National Recreation Area in Utahencompasses Lake Powell, formed by the Glen Canyon Dam. Lakes Mead andMohave (the latter formed by Davis Dam) are part of Lake Mead NationalRecreation Area in Arizona. The Colorado was first explored by the Spanishnavigator Hernando de Alarcón, who ascended the river for more than 160 km(100 mi) in 1540-1541. The Colorado and its chief tributary, the Green,were thoroughly explored for the first time in 1869 by the Americangeologist John Wesley Powell. On this survey Powell and his party made thefirst recorded passage of the Grand Canyon. The construction of the GlenCanyon Dam in 1963 dramatically reduced the natural flow of sand andnutrients down the Colorado River and into the Grand Canyon. In March 1996the federal government released more than 380 billion liters (100 billiongallons) of water from Glen Canyon Dam. This artificial flood added morethan three feet to some beaches downstream and cleared fish spawninggrounds of debris and sediment. Further Reading Columbia (river, NorthAmerica), Major River of western North America, rising in Columbia Lake,just west of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, in southeastern BritishColumbia. The river was formerly known as the Oregon River. The ColumbiaRiver is about 2000 km (1240 mi) long. It initially flows northwest,through a long, narrow valley called the Rocky Mountain Trench, and thenturns sharply south, skirting the Selkirk Mountains and passing throughUpper Arrow Lake and Lower Arrow Lake. It next receives the Kootenay(spelled Kootenai in the United States) and Pend Oreille rivers beforeentering the state of Washington, where it first flows south and thentraverses a great arc, known as the Big Bend. After receiving the SnakeRiver, the Columbia turns west and forms much of the boundary between thestates of Washington and Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Oceanthrough a broad estuary. The river flows through several spectacularcanyons and deep valleys. About one-third of its course is in Canada. TheColumbia and its tributaries together drain a vast basin of about 673,400sq km (about 260,000 sq mi). Large oceangoing ships can navigate the lowerColumbia River as far as Vancouver, Washington; and, with the aid of locks,smaller marine vessels can reach The Dalles, Oregon, about 300 km (about186 mi) upstream. Barges and other shallow-draft boats can navigate afurther 220 km (137 mi). The Columbia River has immense hydroelectricpotential, and since the 1930s several large power projects have been builton it. The largest of these, the Grand Coulee Dam, in central Washington,is the key unit of the Columbia Basin Project, a federal undertaking alsodesigned to irrigate up to 485,623 hectares (1.2 million acres) of semiaridland. Other important power projects on the Columbia include Bonneville,The Dalles, John Day, McNary, Priest Rapids, Rocky Reach, and Chief Josephdams, in the United States, and Mica Dam, in Canada. Most of these dams arealso used for flood control and for irrigation. The American explorerRobert Gray explored the mouth of the Columbia River in 1792. He named theriver for his ship. The Lewis and Clark Expedition explored the lowerColumbia from 1805 to 1806, and David Thompson, a Canadian surveyor andexplorer, followed the river from its source to its mouth in 1811. TheColumbia once had great numbers of salmon and supported a large canningindustry; the fish stock was severely depleted in the 1900s as a result ofdam construction and pollution. In an effort to protect the salmon fromextinction, the Northwest Power Planning Council in 1994 approved a plan torebuild salmon stock by increasing the water flow through the dams and bydeveloping habitat protection standards. Further Reading Continental Divide(also called the Great Divide), ridge of mountains in North America,separating the streams that flow west (into the Pacific Ocean) from thosethat flow east (into the Atlantic Ocean and its marginal seas). Most of thedivide follows the crest of the Rocky Mountains. It extends from Alaska inthe United States into the Yukon Territory and British Columbia in Canadaand forms part of the border between British Columbia and Alberta, also inCanada. It then passes through Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexicoin the United States and continues south into Mexico and Central Americaalong the crest of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The term continental dividemay be applied to the principal watershed boundary of any continent.Fraser, river in southern British Columbia, Canada. The Fraser rises in theRocky Mountains, in Mount Robson Provincial Park near the Alberta border,and flows 1370 km (850 mi) before emptying, through a delta, into theStrait of Georgia, near Vancouver. The Fraser initially flows northwestthrough a section of a deep, narrow valley called the Rocky MountainTrench. It then turns south near the city of Prince George, where itreceives its major western tributary, the Nechako River. In its centralsection, the volume of the river increases, and below Quesnel its banksgradually take on a canyonlike aspect. Important tributaries in thissection include the West Road and Chilcotin rivers, from the west, and theThompson River, from the east. From Lytton to Yale the river flows througha canyon of great scenic beauty. At the canyon’s southern end the Fraserpasses between the Cascade Range to the east and the Coast Mountains to thewest. A little below Yale, at Hope, the river turns sharply west, and thefertile lower Fraser Valley begins. The Fraser empties into the Strait ofGeorgia through three main channels. The river is used by commercialvessels for a short distance upstream. From May to July the Fraser Valleyis subject to flooding; a series of dikes helps protect the delta. TheFraser drains an area of about 238,000 sq km (about 91,890 sq mi). Much ofthe river basin is heavily wooded, and forest-products industries dominatethe economy of the settlements along the river. The lower Fraser Valley,including the delta, has highly productive farms. Various species of salmonspawn in the Fraser, and salmon fisheries are located near the river’smouth. The river has great hydroelectric potential, but it remainsundeveloped for fear of detrimental effects on the migratory habits of thesalmon. The Fraser is highly polluted, especially at its mouth. The firstEuropean to visit the river was Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1793. It isnamed for the fur trader Simon Fraser, who explored much of it in 1808. In1858 gold was found in alluvial gravels north of Yale, and a major goldrush ensued. Louise, Lake, glacial lake in southwestern Alberta, Canada.Lake Louise is located at an elevation of 1731 m (5680 ft) in BanffNational Park, near the town of Lake Louise. The lake is about 2.4 km(about 1.5 mi) long and 1.2 km (0.75 mi) wide. Sheltered by the RockyMountains, Lake Louise is known for the tranquil beauty of its turquoise-blue surface, which mirrors nearby scenic forests and snowcapped peaks. Thelake is fed from the north by the spectacular Victoria Glacier and isdrained by the Bow River in the southeast. Lake Louise was named in 1884for the Canadian governor-general’s wife, who was also the fourth daughterof Queen Victoria. Missouri (river) (Illinois Emissourita,”dwellers of thebig muddy”), river in central United States. The Missouri is formed by theconfluence of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers at Three Forks insouthwestern Montana. The longest river in the United States, the Missouriis one of the primary tributaries of the Mississippi River. It flows 3726km (2315 mi) and drains an area of about 1,370,000 sq km (about 529,000 sqmi). The Missouri initially flows north, skirting the main range of theRocky Mountains. Then it passes through a 366-m (1200-ft) gorge called theGates of the Mountains, turns northeast and reaches Fort Benton, Montana,the head of navigation. From Fort Benton the river flows east and is joinedby the Milk River at Frazer, Montana, and by the Yellowstone River atBuford, North Dakota. From this point the Missouri flows generallysoutheast through North Dakota and South Dakota to Sioux City, Iowa, whereit turns south and becomes the boundary between Nebraska and Kansas on thewest and Iowa and Missouri on the east. The Platte River is received nearOmaha, Nebraska, and the Kansas River at Kansas City, Missouri. Onreceiving the Kansas, the Missouri turns east and flows across the state ofMissouri. About 27 km (about 17 mi) north of St. Louis, the muddy Missourienters the channel of the Mississippi. Other important cities on the riverare Bismarck, North Dakota; Council Bluffs, Iowa; Saint Joseph, Missouri;and Atchison, Leavenworth, and Kansas City, Kansas. The upper Missouritraverses mountainous terrain covered with dense coniferous forests. Theseforests support large animals, including bears, elk, and moose. Fish foundin the cold upper river include the Montana grayling and the rainbow trout.The middle and lower river valleys are lined with grasslands and forests ofpoplar, hickory, and other trees, providing a habitat for rabbits, foxes,beavers, and other animals. Fish in the warmer lower river include bass,several species of catfish, and carp. Historically, a number of NativeAmerican peoples lived in the valley along the Missouri, including theHidatsa, Crow, Iowa, Arikara, Blackfoot, and Sioux. The region was popularfor buffalo hunting and agriculture, and the tribes used the river forcommerce. In 1673 French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and Frenchmissionary and explorer Jacques Marquette became the first Europeans todiscover the Missouri when they came across the lower river during ajourney down the Mississippi. The lower river became an important route forfur traders, who began to venture farther up the river. During the Lewisand Clark Expedition of 1804 to 1806, American explorers Meriwether Lewisand William Clark became the first whites to explore the river basin fromits mouth to its headwaters. Steamboat traffic on the Missouri began in1819 with the voyage of the Independence, and soon steamboats were takingsettlers west, as well as hauling freight such as grain, fur, lumber, andcoal. Steamboat activity peaked in 1858, but then the construction ofrailroads lessened traffic on the river. The lower portion of the river nowsupports commercial barge lines, which carry agricultural products, steel,and oil. In order to enhance navigability and provide flood control,hydroelectric power, and irrigation, the Missouri River Basin Program wascreated in 1944. Under this program and the subsequent Missouri BasinProgram, a series of dams, reservoirs, and locks were built on the river.However, in 1993 heavy rains caused record-breaking flooding along theMissouri and other branches of the Mississippi River. Further ReadingSaskatchewan (river, Canada), river in central Canada, 550 km (340 mi)long. It is formed in central Saskatchewan by the confluence of the NorthSaskatchewan and South Saskatchewan rivers and flows east into Manitoba,where it passes through Cedar Lake before emptying into Lake Winnipeg. TheNorth Saskatchewan River (1200 km/760 mi long) rises in the Rocky Mountainsof southwestern Alberta and flows east past Edmonton, Alberta, and PrinceAlbert, Saskatchewan. The South Saskatchewan River (1390 km/865 mi long),formed by the juncture of the Bow and Oldman rivers in southern Alberta,flows northeast past Medicine Hat, Alberta, and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.The Saskatchewan River system stretches 2600 km (1600 mi) and drains mostof the western prairie. It was an important route in the fur trade of the18th century but has no navigational value today. The river system iswidely used for irrigation, however, and it has several hydroelectricfacilities, notably Gardiner Dam on the South Saskatchewan River, nearSaskatoon, and Grand Rapids Dam, at the mouth of the Saskatchewan River.Arapahoe Peak, mountain, northern Colorado, in the Front Range of the RockyMountains, near Boulder; 4117 m (13,506 ft) high. On the face of the peakis an ice field known as Arapahoe Glacier. Blanca Peak, mountain, southcentral Colorado, in the Sangre de Cristo Range of the Rocky Mountains,near Great Sand Dunes National Monument. It is 4372 m (14,345 ft) high andis one of the highest mountains in the state. Pikes Peak, one of the mostfamous peaks in the Rocky Mountains, located in the Front Range, centralColorado, near Colorado Springs. Although the elevation (4301 m/14,110 ft)of the peak is not the highest in the state, Pikes Peak is noted for acommanding view. Tourists can ascend the mountain by three different means:by horseback, by a cog railway approximately 14 km (9 mi) long, or byautomobile over a well-constructed road. Two springs, Manitou and Colorado,are located near the foot of the mountain. On the summit of Pikes Peak is ameteorological station. The peak was discovered in 1806 by the Americanexplorer and army officer Zebulon Montgomery Pike. It was first climbed in1820. Bufflehead, common name for a small north American diving duck. Itsname is derived from “buffalo-head,” an allusion to the large size of itsshort-billed head, especially in males, created by especially puffyfeathers. The body plumage of males is black and white above and whitebelow, the head glossy black with a large white patch from the eye to theback edge. Females are dark brown, with a smaller white patch on the sideof the head. Adults are about 38 cm (about 15 in) long. Buffleheads nest inwooded areas of Canada and the Rocky Mountains, and winter on bays, lakes,rivers, and harbors. Scientific classification: The bufflehead belongs tothe tribe Mergini in the family Anatidae. It is classified as Bucephalaalbeola. Grosbeak, common name for several species of large-billed seed-eating birds of the fringillid, or finch, family and of the emberizidfamily. Of the fringillid grosbeaks, only two are found in North America:the relatively small billed pine grosbeak, of northern coniferous forestsaround the world, and the very large billed evening grosbeak. The latterspecies breeds in coniferous forests in Canada and the northernmost UnitedStates, extending in the Rocky Mountains south to Mexico. It wintersirregularly in the United States, in some years invading in great numbers,occasionally south to northern Florida. Until the 1950s it bred only as FarEast as Michigan and Ontario, but it then began expanding its range to NewYork, New England, and the Maritime Provinces. Some attribute thisexpansion to better winter survival, as many people put out sunflower seedsand other food for these birds. Some cardinaline grosbeaks are entirelytropical. In North America the best-known species are the rose-breastedgrosbeak, of the east, and its western counterpart, the black-headedgrosbeak. In both the male is strikingly colored: black and white with abright-pink breast spot in the former, and black and orange-brown in thelatter. The females look like giant sparrows. The blue grosbeak is found inthe southern United States and Mexico. Males are rich blue with brown wingbars, and females are dark brown. Scientific classification: Grosbeaksbelong to the families Fringillidae and Emberizidae, of the orderPasseriformes. They are sometimes all placed in either one of thosefamilies. The pine grosbeak is classified as Pinicola enucleator, theevening grosbeak as Coccothraustes vespertina (sometimes Hesperiphonavespertina), the rose-breasted grosbeak as Pheucticus ludovicianus, theblack-headed grosbeak as Pheucticus melanocephalus, and the blue grosbeakas Guiraca caerulea. Grouse, common name for 17 species of birds of thepheasant family, found around the world in the northern hemisphere; two ofthe three species of ptarmigan inhabit both the Americas and Eurasia.Grouse vary in size from males of the capercaillie, 86 cm (34 in) long, ofEuropean coniferous forests, to the 32 cm (12.5 in) white-tailed ptarmigan,of western North American Mountains. In most species the sexes differ incolor, but none have truly bright plumage. Bright colors are limited to redor yellow comblike structures over the eyes, expanded during the breedingseason, or sacs of naked skin that inflate like balloons during courtshipdisplays. Mating systems are elaborate in most grouse, and in many themales are polygamous, meeting in the spring at certain arenas where theycompete for mates. As highly popular game birds, grouse have beenintensively studied. Best known and most widely distributed of the Americanspecies is the ruffed grouse, which occurs in woodlands from Alaska toNewfoundland, south to the northern Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians.The name comes from a ruff of black (rarely, coppery) feathers at the sidesof the neck. These feathers are larger in males than in females, and arespread widely during courtship displays, when the male struts on a moss-covered log. This species is famous for the springtime “drumming” of themales, a sound produced by the beating of the wings against the air, as themale stands erect. The sound carries a great distance, and resembles anoisy gasoline engine starting up. Two other North American grouse, theblue grouse of western mountains and the more widely distributed sprucegrouse are confined to coniferous forests. The male blue grouse hasinflatable neck sacs, varying geographically in color from yellow toreddish purple; the spruce grouse lacks such sacs. These two species havebeen called “fool hens” because of their apparent fearlessness, making themeasy to hunt. Two species of prairie chicken, the closely related sharp-tailed grouse, and the sage grouse, dwell in open country. The latter, aninhabitant of sagebrush areas, especially in the Great Basin, is thelargest American grouse. Males reach 75 cm (30 in) in length; females aresmaller (58 cm/23 in). During the communal courtship displays, males strutabout with their spiky tail feathers fanned out, and a pair of yellow sacson their chests inflated. Scientific classification: Grouse belong to thefamily Phasianidae of the order Galliformes. The capercaillie is classifiedas Tetrao urogallus, the white-tailed ptarmigan as Lagopus leucurus, andthe ruffed grouse as Bonasa umbellus. The blue grouse is classified asDendragapus obscurus and the spruce grouse as Dendragapus canadensis.Prairie chickens are classified in the genus Tympanuchus. The sharp-tailedgrouse is classified as Tympanuchus phasianellus and the sage grouse asCentrocercus urophasianus. Further Reading Solitaire (bird), common nameapplied to various species of American thrush. In the United States, onespecies, Townsend’s solitaire, is found chiefly in the Rocky Mountains. Thebird is largely brownish gray in color, with a white-eye ring and a buffwing patch. All solitaires are superb singers. Solitaire was also the nameof an extinct, flightless bird resembling the dodo. It inhabited Rodrigues,an island in the Indian Ocean, until the last half of the 18th century.Scientific classification: Solitaires belong to the family Turdidae of theorder Passeriformes. Townsend’s solitaire is classified as Myadestestownsendi. The solitaire that is now extinct belongs to the familyRaphidae, order Columbiformes, and is classified as Pezophaps solitaria.Columbine (flower), common name for certain perennial herbs with lacy,lobed leaves and delicate flowers. Remarkably, both sepals and petals arecolored, and the petals extend to form a spur. The 40 known species arewidely distributed in the North Temperate Zone and show a prismatic rangeof color. North American and Eurasian species, as well as a number ofhybrids, are grown in gardens. Among the common species are the wildcolumbine, with scarlet to pink flowers, native from Nova Scotia to Texas,and the Colorado, or Rocky Mountain, columbine, with blue flowers.Scientific classification: Columbines belong to the family Ranunculaceae.Wild columbine is classified as Aquilegia canadensis. Colorado, or RockyMountain, columbine is classified as Aquilegia caerulea. Indian Paintbrush,common name for any of a genus of annual, biennial, and perennial herbs(see Figwort). The genus, which contains about 200 species, is native tothe cooler portions of North and Central America and Asia, and to theAndes. Because Indian paintbrushes, also called painted cups, are parasiticon the roots of other plants, they have not been naturalized and haverarely been cultivated away from their native habitat. The plants havelong, hairy, unbranched stems with alternate leaves. The uppermost leaves,or bracts, are brilliantly colored and much showier than the inconspicuousinterspersed flowers. The flowers, which are borne in spikes, have a two-lobed calyx, a two-lobed corolla, four stamens, and a solitary pistil. Thecorolla, which is usually yellow, is encased within the calyx, and isusually indiscernible. The fruit is a two-celled capsule. The commonpainted cup is the state flower of Wyoming. The calyx of this plant isgreenish white, but the bracts are intense vermilion. The scarletpaintbrush is a common wild plant of the eastern United States. The commonIndian paintbrush is a hardy herb found in Canada and in the mountainousregions of the northern United States from New England to the RockyMountains. Its calyx is greenish white tinted with purplish red. Scientificclassification: Indian paintbrushes make up the genus Castilleja, of thefamily Scrophulariaceae. The common painted cup is classified as Castillejalinariaefolia, the scarlet paintbrush as Castilleja coccinea, and thecommon Indian paintbrush as Castilleja septentrionalis. Sagebrush, commonname applied to any of several related aromatic, bitter shrubs, native tothe plains and mountains of western North America, but especially to theGreat Basin, the extensive desert region west of the Rocky Mountains in theUnited States. Sagebrush is some of the few woody members of their family(see Composite Flowers). The most common species in the United States isthe common sagebrush, a many-branched plant that grows from 0.3 to 6 m (1to 20 ft) in height. It has silvery, toothed leaves and terminal clustersof small, yellow flowers. A similar species, the low sagebrush, attains amaximum height of 30 cm (1 ft) and is abundant in the plains of Coloradoand Wyoming. Because sagebrush often grows in regions where there are fewother woody plants, it is sometimes used for fuel. In some areas thefoliage is used as winter forage. Overgrazing of native grasses has causeda proportionate increase in sagebrush. Scientific classification: Sagebrushis classified in the genus Artemisia of the family Compositae. The commonsagebrush is classified as Artemisia tridentata. The low sagebrush isclassified as Artemisia arbuscula. Bighorn Sheep, largest and best-knownwild sheep of the North American continent, also called Rocky Mountainsheep. They are found from southern British Columbia to northwesternMexico. A full-grown bighorn may average 101 cm (40 in) at the shoulder andrange in weight from 79 to 158 kg (175 to 350 lb). The great curved horns,which may take more than one turn, attain a length of up to 127 cm (up to50 in). The ewes have smaller horns, seldom exceeding 38 cm (15 in). Thecoat is not woolly but long, full, and coarse, like that of a goat. Theanimals have a short mating season, during which the rams clash head-on ina battle for the ewes; for the rest of the year the sheep usually divideinto separate male and female herds. The bighorns leap from ledge to ledgeat great speed and grip slippery surfaces with the shock-absorbing elasticpads of the feet. The animals have exceptionally acute senses of sight,smell, and hearing. Two other varieties found in northwest North Americaare the white sheep, or Dall sheep, and the deep gray or grayish-brownStone’s sheep. The bighorn is related to the Asian argali, the mouflon, andthe domestic sheep. Scientific classification: The bighorn sheep belongs tothe family Bovidae, in the order Artiodactyla. It is classified as Oviscanadensis. Ground Squirrel, common name for certain burrowing,terrestrial, western American rodents characterized by large cheek pouchesopening inside their mouths. Ground squirrels are often erroneously calledgophers. Like the true gophers, they are agricultural menaces, destroyinggrass and grain. Their alternate name, spermophile (Greek for “seedlover”), is derived from their usual diet. The ground squirrel resemblesboth the prairie dog and the chipmunk. Most ground squirrels are brownishor yellowish-gray, with light spots on the upper parts. Some species havelongitudinal stripes along their backs. In the northern part of their rangethey hibernate during the winter; the duration of hibernation varies withthe environment, and in some species hibernation may extend from Septemberto May. Ground squirrels are found in open country, often in arid regions.The Great Plains ground squirrel, found west of the Rocky Mountains, istypical of most of the spermophiles. The rough-haired ground squirrel is 28cm (11 in) long and has an 8-cm (3-in) bushy tail. Its back is brown andits lower parts yellowish-gray; it has a white chin and a white ring aroundeach eye. The head is stubby, with round, wide ears. The legs are short.These animals seek their food close to their burrows. They mate after theyemerge from hibernation in the spring; the female bears 5 to 13 offspringat a time. The 13-striped spermophile, found near the Mississippi River,has 7 grayish-yellow stripes running down its back, interspersed with 6stripes composed of spots. Its lower parts are fawn colored. This animalsubsists on mice, insects, and grain. Scientific classification: Groundsquirrels belong to the family Sciuridae. The Great Plains ground squirrelis classified as Spermophilus elegans, the 13-striped ground squirrel asSpermophilus tridecemlineatus. Further Reading Mule Deer, common name for alarge deer of the western and central United States, so called because ofits extremely large ears, which measure almost 25 cm (almost 10 in) inlength. This animal attains a height of 107 cm (42 in) at the shoulder. Thename black-tailed deer is sometimes applied to a subspecies of the muledeer inhabiting the Rocky Mountains. The tail of this deer along the basaltwo-thirds is white above and dark below; the terminal third is black.Scientific classification: The mule deer belongs to the family Cervidae. Itis classified as Odocoileus hemionus. Rocky Mountain Goat, also mountaingoat, common name of a species of antelope that inhabits the high mountainsfrom the northwestern United States to Alaska. Mountain goats live inregions of heavy snowfall and tend to inhabit localities with many cragsand cliffs. They are excellent climbers, and their hooves, which have softpads rimmed with sharp edges, enable them to climb and run on snow, ice, orbare rock. The Rocky Mountain goat is 90 to 120 cm (36 to 47 in) tall atthe shoulders. The body is sturdy and the legs are short and stout. Bothsexes have black horns, which contrast with the yellowish-white, shaggyhair covering the entire body, and a beardlike tuft of hair underneath thechin. Rocky Mountain goats are herbivorous ruminants, feeding on anyexposed vegetation they find. They are not gregarious, except during themating season between November and early January. The young are borngenerally between May and June. Scientific classification: The RockyMountain goat belongs to the family Bovidae. It is classified as Oreamnosamericanus. Wolf, carnivore related to the jackal and domestic dog.Powerful teeth, bushy tails, and round pupils characterize all wolves.Certain characteristics of the skull distinguish them from domestic dogs,some breeds of which they otherwise resemble. There are two species ofwolves: the gray, or timber, wolf, once widely distributed but now foundonly in Canada, Alaska, and northern Europe and Russia, except for a fewisolated packs in other regions; and the red wolf, found only in Texas andthe southeastern United States. An adult gray wolf measures up to 2 m (6.5ft) in length, including the tail (less than half the body length), andweighs up to 80 kg (175 lb). The fur of the gray wolf is red-yellow oryellow-gray with black patches on its back and sides, and white on itschest and abdomen. There are also black or brown gray wolves, and those inthe far north may be pure white. The red wolf is smaller in size andusually darker in color. Wolves are equally at home on prairies, in forestlands, and on all but the highest mountains. In the winter they travel inpacks searching for food. Small animals and birds are the common prey ofwolves, but a pack sometimes attacks reindeer, caribou, sheep, and otherlarge mammals, usually selecting weak, old, or very young animals foreasier capture. When no live prey can be found, wolves feed on carrion(decaying flesh of dead animals). They also eat berries. The den, or lair,of a wolf may be a cave, a hollow tree trunk, a thicket, or a hole in theground dug by the wolf. In the spring, females have litters of one toeleven pups. Adult wolves sometimes feed young pups by regurgitating partlydigested food for them. The pups normally stay with the parents until thefollowing winter but may remain much longer. Parents and young constitute abasic pack, which establishes and defends a territory marked by urine andfeces. Larger packs may also assemble, particularly in the winter. The packleader is called the alpha male and his mate is the alpha female. As socialanimals, wolves exhibit behavioral patterns that clearly communicatedominance over or submission to one another. The communal howling of a packmay serve to assemble its members, communicate with other packs, advertiseits territorial claims, or it may be simply a way of expressing pleasure.Visual and scent signals are also important in communication. Although graywolves are still abundant across northern Europe and Asia, only remnantpopulations exist elsewhere in Europe. Their numbers in North America alsohave been greatly diminished. They are fairly abundant only in Alaska andCanada; smaller numbers exist in the Pacific Northwest and upper Midwest,primarily in Minnesota. Under the Endangered Species Act, the United StatesFish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as threatened in Minnesota and as anendangered species elsewhere in the United States except Alaska list thegray wolf. The red wolf, also listed as endangered species, was the firstspecies for which the USFWS developed a recovery plan. The decreasingnumbers of wolves are the result of encroachments on their territory byhumans, who have long regarded wolves as competitors for prey and asdangerous to livestock, pets, and people. However, few if any healthywolves have attacked humans, whom they instead try to avoid. Wolves arevaluable predators in the food web, and their decimation has led to theoverpopulation of certain other animal species in various areas. Activeefforts to reintroduce wolves to national parks in the United States arenow underway, although such efforts are controversial. Because coyotes havehybridized with some red wolves, an attempt to reintroduce red wolves toparts of North Carolina has involved identifying red wolves that are notpart coyote. The success of this project is not yet clear. In 1995 and 1996the USFWS reintroduced Canadian gray wolves into Yellowstone National Parkand the Sawtooth Mountain region in central Idaho, despite protests fromnearby ranchers and some biologists. The reintroduced wolves are producingmore offspring than expected. When ten breeding pairs reside in theseregions for three years, the gray wolf will be taken off the list ofendangered species in the northern Rocky Mountains. Wolf biologistsestimate that this goal may be met by the year 2002 without transplantingadditional wolves from Canada. By 1997 these reintroduction efforts weresucceeding beyond expectations of wolf biologists. Scientificclassification: The wolf belongs to the family Canidae. The gray, ortimber, wolf is classified as Canis lupus. The red wolf is classified asCanis rufus.