EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (I).
Ever since the existence of man the teaching and learning process has beenan integral part of human experience. The communication of knowledge andpractical skills has always been essential to the development ofindividuals, groups and wider communities. If this is true of the mostprimitive of communities it is all the more so in today’s complex societywhere personal fulfilment depends to a large extent on one’s social rolewhich is often a direct result of acquired knowledge and the ability tomake the most of it. The ability to develop one’s critical sense, theability to analyse, to see how things and persons relate are all skillsthat are the result of education.
It was not long before communities realised that if they needed people ofability then it had to encourage education. After all a society of any kindis not a mere abstraction but a number of individuals that are in some wayare related and interact. The development of society as a whole depends onthe development of each constituent part.
Even the Homo Habilis of the Stone Age had to learn to make rudimentaryweapons to defend himself and to hunt for food. He had to learn how to usethe skins of the animals to make basic protective clothing. Thetransmission of knowledge and skills (education) allowed him to survive. Weare the living proof that he did survive; we have built upon hisknowledge!!
Some early schools that still survive
In Britain, during the Middles Ages, formal education was already takingshape. Schools ranged from those organised by the local parish to thoseconnected to Cathedrals, chantries and monasteries.
These gave a very elementary education. Pupils were given religiousinstruction and were taught to read.
We also have the first grammar schools that prepared pupils for entranceinto the colleges in Oxford. The Bishop of Winchester founded Seinte MarieCollege of Winchestre (chartered in 1382 and opened by him in 1394).Another very prestigious institution, Eton College, was founded by Henry VIin 1440. Both Winchester College and Eton College still exist as veryexclusive institutions.
Henry Fielding, the Duke of Wellington, William Gladstone and George Orwellare among the many famous people who attended Eton.
Apart from those already mentioned there are a number of other ancientschools that still survive: St Paul’s School founded in 1509 by John Colet(?1467-1519). Rugby founded in 1567 and associated with the name of theVictorian poet Matthew Arnold (1822-88).
All of these institutions provided specialised knowledge in Latin and Greeknecessary for their future studies in one of the Oxford colleges.
Apart from these academically orientated institutions there were also otherforms of formal education especially those of a vocational kind.Apprentices learnt their trade skills in schools run by the various guilds.
Already we can see from the age of primitive man down to the Middle Agesand the Renaissance the two essential forms of the modern system ofeducation in England today. From early times we have two separate systemsproviding different types of education: academic and vocational.
We also see existing side by side two types of educational institutions:secular and religious. From early times there has always been a closeassociation between the Church and education which has survived throughoutthe ages. Schools run by religious organisations have always had a profoundinfluence on the development of education and still offer an invaluableservice to the nation.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (II)
Introduction
The events that lead directly to the birth of the modern system ofeducation in England are to be sought mainly in the second half of the 19th-
century.There were certain individuals at the beginning of the 19th century whowere in favour of widespread education, however, for a number of reasons,they did not have the backing either of the government or of the people.Later on in the century leaders of the Chartist Movement and the Radicalswere in favour of some sort of national system of education. However, it issafe to say that there was no widespread desire for the education of thepopulation as a whole. In the social legislation of this period educationdid not become a real priority until the year of the first Education Act,1870.
Obstacles in way of a national system of free compulsory education
The establishment of a national system of education came late in Englandmainly because of the social, economic and religious climate of thecentury.
The higher classes of society had no interest in advocating the cultural development of the working classes. On the contrary, the effects of the revolutionary spirit in Europe reinforced conservative attitudes that were certainly not conducive to advocating the development of the critical faculties of the people as a whole.
Neither did the vast majority of the working class have any real interest in education. Child labour was common practice in this period and working-class families were very reluctant to give up the earnings of their children for the benefit of education. The employment of children continued to increase even after 1850.
Also the effect of Protestantism, with its emphasis on individualism, personal salvation, the private reading and interpretation of Scripture, ran contrary to any sort of collectivist thought.
Religious conflict also delayed the establishment of a national system of education. One example of this can be seen in the reaction to the clauses regarding education in the 1843 Factory Bill. There was
violent opposition on the part of nonconformists and Catholics alike because, according to the Bill, headmasters had to be of the Church of England. Furthermore, the children were to be taught the catechism and be present at liturgical celebrations as well as service on Sundays. The Bill failed.The idea of secular education had never been popular during the century. Education had almost exclusively been under the control of the established church. Furthermore, we should not forget the conflict between secular and religious thought that characterised the century, especially the latter half. Given the cultural and religious climate of the century it became obvious that any nondenominational system of education would be well nigh impossible. It was only in the 20th century, with the rise of indifference towards religious teaching, that general nondenominational schooling became possible. Denominational education was further reinforced by the increase in the Catholic population due to the wave of Irish immigrants during and following the Great Famine in Ireland (1845-50).
It was also thought that the voluntary school system was quite successful and that it was better not to encourage government intervention. Furthermore, the dominant laissez-faire theory of the time meant that, as in most areas, any direct intervention on the part of the state in the field of education was to be discouraged. The state was only too happy to leave education to the private sector, voluntary or otherwise. Education could not constitute an exception to the tenaciously upheld doctrine of laissez-faire. However, these voluntary institutions did not have the influence or power to construct a nationwide system.
Economic development and the increase of wealth were seen to be priorityissues. The question of education only attracted very limited attention.
Tendencies and events favouring national education
Not everything was negative; there were quite distinct undercurrents of
thought beginning to emerge that eventually led to the 1870 Education Act.During the century, and particularly during the second half, we have thebeginnings of a national system of education that owes its birth to manyfactors.From the first decade of the 19th-century there emerged indications of new thinking in the field of education. Of particular interest is the Bill introduced into the House of commons by Samuel Whitbread in 1807.
In 1807 Samuel Whitbread proposed to deal with the whole of the Poor Lawwith the introduction of a Bill in the House of Commons. Of particularinterest is the first part of the Bill, which dealt specifically witheducation. Whitbread advocated making the parish responsible for educationand proposed that each child should have two years of education between theages of 7 and 14. He thought this would reduce crime and pauperism.
It was considered too expensive to implement and it was also thought thatthe introduction of such a scheme would take the people away from manualwork and make them dissatisfied with their social situation. Althoughunsuccessful the thought of generalised education for the masses was eventhen being expressed and was later to be reiterated constantly throughoutthe century eventually leading up to the 1870 Education Act.
The idea of widespread education was also helped by the gradual increase in collectivist thought especially after 1865. This is quite evident in the works of Carlyle and Ruskin. It was only after this date that any idea of widespread state intervention in the field of education could find fertile ground.
The various Factory Acts of 1833, 1844, and 1867 were another contributory factor towards the general tendency towards national education. These acts focused not only on the condition of workers but they also had the effect of imposing certain restrictions on child labour, which in turn favoured the opportunity of an alternative:
education for the child.In the second half of the 19th-century crime and pauperism increased, so did riots strikes and social unrest. The commercial and manufacturing supremacy of Britain was in decline and this was seen to be mostly due to the fact that other European countries had a more developed technical education system. Political stability and economic prosperity now seemed to be associated with the education of the people. Education now seemed financially viable.
In 1869 two other societies were established: the Education League, which turned secular and the National Education Union, which was conservative and Anglican. It was mainly due to these two societies that the Education Act of 1870 was passed.
The Education Act of 1870
It was with the Education Act of 1870, also known as the “Forster Act”,that we have the real birth of the modern system of education in England.This not only gave rise to a national system of state education but alsoassured the existence of a dual system – voluntary denominational schoolsand nondenominational state schools.
The act required the establishment of elementary schools nationwide. Thesewere not to replace or duplicate what already existed but supplement thosealready run by the churches, private individuals and guilds.
The country was divided into school districts and in those areas wherethere was inadequate provision school boards were to be elected. These wereresponsible for raising sufficient funds to maintain the schools. Theschools were often called ” board schools”.
These elementary schools had to be non-denominational. The school boardscould charge a weekly fee not exceeding 9 pence. For a limited period theschool boards could pay the fees if the parents were unable to do so. TheVoluntary Schools could also receive such payment of fees from the schoolboards.
They had to guarantee attendance for all children in their respective
districts between the ages of 5 and 13. The School Board could appointofficers to enforce attendance. These officers or “Board Men”, as they werecommonly known, became one of those terribly menacing figures firmlyimplanted in the minds of young schoolboys. This figure was an effectivedeterrent in playing truant. All the more menacing because the child couldonly picture him in his imagination (if he faithfully attended school, thatis!!). He was also known as the School Attendance Officer.Religious instruction was an integral part of the school curriculum but wasnot compulsory. This was to be nondenominational.
Since 1870 Voluntary Schools declined except Roman Catholic Schools becauseBoards Schools provided better buildings and higher pay for teachers.
Elementary education became effectively free with the passing of the 1891Education Act.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (III)
Introduction.
In the 20th century Education became a sensitive social, economic andpolitical issue in most European countries. England was no exception. Inthe history of English education the most important piece of legislation ofthe twentieth century was the Education Act of 1944, also known as the“Butler Act”. It replaced all previous legislation.
It became increasingly clear that education was of vital importance to thenation and to the individual and the legislation passed necessarilyreflected this conviction. It also reflected political tendencies, as wellas the social and economic needs of the nation.
Education of the individual is the foundation of the education of thecommunity. The individual’s needs are not merely academic and neither arethose of the community. This comes out quite clearly in the 1944 EducationAct:
“it shall be the duty of the local education authority for every area, sofar as their powers extend, to continue towards the spiritual, mental andphysical developments of the community”
(1944 Education Act Part II, 7)
If education is to foster the “spiritual, mental and physical” well-being
of the community it has to be focused on the “spiritual, mental andphysical” well-being of each individual member of that community; educationhas to be child-centred.Education not only has to do with communicating academic information butalso involves the whole of the person: academic ability, spiritual,physical and vocational needs. It is clearly noticeable in the history ofeducation in England that religion and spiritual values are seen to be ofparamount importance. Once again the 1944 Education Act stresses this bystating how the day at school should begin:
“the school day in every county school and in every voluntary school shallbegin with collective worship on the part of all pupils in attendance”
In England these dimensions of a pupil’s life have all been considered tobe the principal concerns of education throughout the ages, not only in the20th century.
The same principal was also reiterated in the Education Reform Act 1988where it states the need for a broadly based curriculum which:
“promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical developmentof pupils at the school and of society”
These views are shared by all social classes and political parties. Withequal conviction any form of “political indoctrination” has been bannedfrom schools (the second 1986 Education Act). School texts obviouslyreflect this policy.
THE ENGLISH EDUCATION SYSTEM
What follows cannot be considered a complete description of the educationalsystem in England. The system was and still is more complex than it seemshere. What follows merely offers the essential elements, the “backbone” ofthe system. There is enough information to facilitate comparisons withsystems of education in other countries.
Unified or diversified Secondary education?
While there were only Elementary Schools for children between the ages of 5and 13 problems were limited. There was only one way forward after school –
the working world. There was no possibility of an academic career exceptfor those who could afford it.The general nature of education changed when it became possible for arestricted number of pupils to gain free places in a Grammar School if theypassed an examination at the age of 11. The Elementary School began toconsider preparing for the examination as its main function. Theexamination tested the ability of the children in two subjects only:English and Arithmetic. Other subjects, therefore, tended to becomeneglected. Furthermore, the reputation of the school depended mainly on itssuccess rate at this examination.
The examination formed the basis of what is known as the 11plus (11+)examination. It led to divisions in schools (streaming), in the country(social class distinctions) and also led to irreconcilable politicalattitudes (Labour v. Conservative) with the Conservative in favour of thisselection process and Labour against it. All the opposition against the 11+exam and the selection process has led to the idea of the moderncomprehensive system cherished by Labour and rejected by Conservatives.
Whatever were the arguments for and against the examination it was truethat the future life of a child was decided at about 11. Pupils who didn’tsit or who failed the 11+ examination could only gain access to a SecondaryModern School and later perhaps to a Technical School.
The tripartite system
Before the introduction of Comprehensive Schools the state education systemin England was essentially tripartite and was made up of
Grammar Schools
Secondary Modern Schools
Secondary Technical Schools
Grammar Schools.
This type of school catered essentially for those who were interested inpursuing their studies beyond the O-level GCE stage. It provided anacademic education for pupils between the ages of 12 and 19. Their pupilscame through the selective process of the 11+ examination and therefore
these schools had the most academically gifted children. Most of the pupilsentered university after school.It was, rightly or wrongly, seen as a middle class institution.
Secondary Modern Schools
Here the pupils normally attended a four year course leading to the SchoolLeaving Certificate. The course usually offered instruction in English, atleast one other language, geography, history, mathematics, science,drawing, manual instruction or domestic subjects, and physical exercise.When pupils left school they normally entered into the working world.
The choice of curriculum was not influenced by future academic achievementbut was child centred. It developed out of the interests, needs and abilityof the children and as they later went to work it obviously had a practicaldimension. As there was no external examination to be taken at the end ofthe course the pupils were not under pressure.
What caused things to change? There was a possibility of staying on for afurther year and in the 1950s there was a growing tendency to do so. Thosewho continued into the 5th year could sit the General Certificate ofEducation (GCE).
As a result of the increasing number of pupils taking the GCE the need wasfelt for a more specific examination adapted to the Secondary ModernSchool. In 1963 we have the introduction of a new type of externalexamination, the Certificate of Secondary Education (C.S.E.) for fifth yearpupils.
Secondary Technical Schools
This was the less popular alternative to the Secondary Modern School. Thosewho failed the 11+ went to a Secondary Modern School but at the age of 12or 13 could gain a place at a Secondary Technical School.
It is difficult to imagine why it was not successful since this type ofschool was closely linked to the world of industry and commerce. It
provided a general education with special emphasis on technical subjects.It was definitely more in touch with reality than Grammar Schools andcertainly more specifically geared to preparing the pupils for their tradeafter leaving school.However, there was a lack of qualified teachers and this must be seen asone cause for its lack of success. Perhaps also there was a markedpsychological deterrent. The pupils who had already faced one examinationfailure (11+) perhaps did not feel inclined to go through the humiliatingexperience of another possible failure at such an early age. Besides, theyhad already overcome the pressure of the 11+ exam and now feltpsychologically relieved.
The present system
Between the ages of 5 and 11 children attend the primary school and thenprogress to secondary school level, which normally means entry into aComprehensive School.
The tripartite system of secondary education has practically disappearedand has been replaced by the Comprehensive School.
Among the Comprehensive Schools are also the Voluntary denominationalschools. Particularly strong are the Roman Catholic Comprehensive Schools.
What is a comprehensive school?
When we say that it incorporates everything in the tripartite system wehave said all.
For the sake of clarity we might give the official definition: theComprehensive School is a school
“intended to provide all the secondary education of all the children in agiven area without an organization in three sides”
These schools take all pupils regardless of ability (except those childrenwith special needs who attend special schools). They therefore cater forchildren from a variety of social backgrounds, hence the name“comprehensive”. There is no examination or any other selection process forentry.
Comprehensive Schools, however, have not eliminated distinctions. There iswhat is called “streaming” and “setting” according to learning ability.This means that students are grouped together in order to achieve a degree
of uniformity in classes.86.8% of pupils in England attend comprehensive schools. There are,however, other types of school: 5.2% attend middle, deemed secondary; 2.6%attend Secondary Modern; 4.2% Secondary Grammar; 0.1% Technical Schools.
Examinations
After four years of secondary school, at about the age of 16, pupils sitthe General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examination. This istaken in a wide range of subjects according to the pupils’ ability. Usuallyfour to eight or even as many as ten subjects. The exams are marked by anindependent body.
Two years later the students sit another examination called the GeneralCertificate of Education (GCE) (A Level) again based on a selection ofsubjects chosen by each candidate (usually three to five and including ascience subject and an arts subject). Access to universities is based onthe number of examinations taken and the grades achieved. The exactrequirements are fixed by the individual universities and vary according tothe type of degree course you want to follow.
Here are some links highlighting the debate on grammar schools which stilllingers on:
National Grammar Schools Association This site aims to promote the GrammarSchools in Britain
Say No A useful site in favour of the comprehensive system.
Education Unlimited A useful site for the latest news in the field ofeducation.