EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (I).
Ever since the existence of man the teaching and learning process has been an integral part of human experience. The communication of knowledge and practical skills has always been essential to the development of individuals, groups and wider communities.
If this is true of the most primitive of communities it is all the more so in today’s complex society where personal fulfilment depends to a large extent on one’s social role which is often a direct result of acquired knowledge and the ability to make the most of it. The ability to develop one’s critical sense, the ability to analyse, to see how things and persons relate are all skills that are the result of education.
It was not long before communities realised that if they needed people of ability then it had to encourage education. After all a society of any kind is not a mere abstraction but a number of individuals that are in some way are related and interact. The development of society as a whole depends on the development of each constituent part.
Even the Homo Habilis of the Stone Age had to learn to make rudimentary weapons to defend himself and to hunt for food. He had to learn how to use the skins of the animals to make basic protective clothing. The transmission of knowledge and skills (education) allowed him to survive. We are the living proof that he did survive; we have built upon his knowledge!!
Some early schools that still survive
In Britain, during the Middles Ages, formal education was already taking shape. Schools ranged from those organised by the local parish to those connected to Cathedrals, chantries and monasteries.
These gave a very elementary education. Pupils were given religious instruction and were taught to read.
We also have the first grammar schools that prepared pupils for entrance into the colleges in Oxford. The Bishop of Winchester founded Seinte Marie
College of Winchestre (chartered in 1382 and opened by him in 1394).
Another very prestigious institution, Eton College, was founded by Henry VI
in 1440. Both Winchester College and Eton College still exist as very exclusive institutions.
Henry Fielding, the Duke of Wellington, William Gladstone and George Orwell are among the many famous people who attended Eton.
Apart from those already mentioned there are a number of other ancient schools that still survive: St Paul’s School founded in 1509 by John Colet
(?1467-1519). Rugby founded in 1567 and associated with the name of the
Victorian poet Matthew Arnold (1822-88).
All of these institutions provided specialised knowledge in Latin and Greek necessary for their future studies in one of the Oxford colleges.
Apart from these academically orientated institutions there were also other forms of formal education especially those of a vocational kind.
Apprentices learnt their trade skills in schools run by the various guilds.
Already we can see from the age of primitive man down to the Middle Ages and the Renaissance the two essential forms of the modern system of education in England today. From early times we have two separate systems providing different types of education: academic and vocational.
We also see existing side by side two types of educational institutions:
secular and religious. From early times there has always been a close association between the Church and education which has survived throughout the ages. Schools run by religious organisations have always had a profound influence on the development of education and still offer an invaluable service to the nation.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (II)
Introduction
The events that lead directly to the birth of the modern system of education in England are to be sought mainly in the second half of the 19th-
century.
There were certain individuals at the beginning of the 19th century who were in favour of widespread education, however, for a number of reasons, they did not have the backing either of the government or of the people.
Later on in the century leaders of the Chartist Movement and the Radicals were in favour of some sort of national system of education. However, it is safe to say that there was no widespread desire for the education of the population as a whole. In the social legislation of this period education did not become a real priority until the year of the first Education Act,
1870.
Obstacles in way of a national system of free compulsory education
The establishment of a national system of education came late in England mainly because of the social, economic and religious climate of the century.
The higher classes of society had no interest in advocating the cultural development of the working classes. On the contrary, the effects of the revolutionary spirit in Europe reinforced conservative attitudes that were certainly not conducive to advocating the development of the critical faculties of the people as a whole.
Neither did the vast majority of the working class have any real interest in education. Child labour was common practice in this period and working-class families were very reluctant to give up the earnings of their children for the benefit of education. The employment of children continued to increase even after 1850.
Also the effect of Protestantism, with its emphasis on individualism, personal salvation, the private reading and interpretation of
Scripture, ran contrary to any sort of collectivist thought.
Religious conflict also delayed the establishment of a national system of education. One example of this can be seen in the reaction to the clauses regarding education in the 1843 Factory Bill. There was violent opposition on the part of nonconformists and Catholics alike because, according to the Bill, headmasters had to be of the Church of
England. Furthermore, the children were to be taught the catechism and be present at liturgical celebrations as well as service on Sundays.
The Bill failed.
The idea of secular education had never been popular during the century. Education had almost exclusively been under the control of the established church. Furthermore, we should not forget the conflict between secular and religious thought that characterised the century, especially the latter half. Given the cultural and religious climate of the century it became obvious that any nondenominational system of education would be well nigh impossible. It was only in the 20th century, with the rise of indifference towards religious teaching, that general nondenominational schooling became possible.
Denominational education was further reinforced by the increase in the
Catholic population due to the wave of Irish immigrants during and following the Great Famine in Ireland (1845-50).
It was also thought that the voluntary school system was quite successful and that it was better not to encourage government intervention. Furthermore, the dominant laissez-faire theory of the time meant that, as in most areas, any direct intervention on the part of the state in the field of education was to be discouraged. The state was only too happy to leave education to the private sector, voluntary or otherwise. Education could not constitute an exception to the tenaciously upheld doctrine of laissez-faire. However, these voluntary institutions did not have the influence or power to construct a nationwide system.
Economic development and the increase of wealth were seen to be priority issues. The question of education only attracted very limited attention.
Tendencies and events favouring national education
Not everything was negative; there were quite distinct undercurrents of thought beginning to emerge that eventually led to the 1870 Education Act.
During the century, and particularly during the second half, we have the beginnings of a national system of education that owes its birth to many factors.
From the first decade of the 19th-century there emerged indications of new thinking in the field of education. Of particular interest is the
Bill introduced into the House of commons by Samuel Whitbread in 1807.
In 1807 Samuel Whitbread proposed to deal with the whole of the Poor Law with the introduction of a Bill in the House of Commons. Of particular interest is the first part of the Bill, which dealt specifically with education. Whitbread advocated making the parish responsible for education and proposed that each child should have two years of education between the ages of 7 and 14. He thought this would reduce crime and pauperism.
It was considered too expensive to implement and it was also thought that the introduction of such a scheme would take the people away from manual work and make them dissatisfied with their social situation. Although unsuccessful the thought of generalised education for the masses was even then being expressed and was later to be reiterated constantly throughout the century eventually leading up to the 1870 Education Act.
The idea of widespread education was also helped by the gradual increase in collectivist thought especially after 1865. This is quite evident in the works of Carlyle and Ruskin. It was only after this date that any idea of widespread state intervention in the field of education could find fertile ground.
The various Factory Acts of 1833, 1844, and 1867 were another contributory factor towards the general tendency towards national education. These acts focused not only on the condition of workers but they also had the effect of imposing certain restrictions on child labour, which in turn favoured the opportunity of an alternative:
education for the child.
In the second half of the 19th-century crime and pauperism increased, so did riots strikes and social unrest. The commercial and manufacturing supremacy of Britain was in decline and this was seen to be mostly due to the fact that other European countries had a more developed technical education system. Political stability and economic prosperity now seemed to be associated with the education of the people. Education now seemed financially viable.
In 1869 two other societies were established: the Education League, which turned secular and the National Education Union, which was conservative and Anglican. It was mainly due to these two societies that the Education Act of 1870 was passed.
The Education Act of 1870
It was with the Education Act of 1870, also known as the „Forster Act”, that we have the real birth of the modern system of education in England.
This not only gave rise to a national system of state education but also assured the existence of a dual system – voluntary denominational schools and nondenominational state schools.
The act required the establishment of elementary schools nationwide. These were not to replace or duplicate what already existed but supplement those already run by the churches, private individuals and guilds.
The country was divided into school districts and in those areas where there was inadequate provision school boards were to be elected. These were responsible for raising sufficient funds to maintain the schools. The schools were often called ” board schools”.
These elementary schools had to be non-denominational. The school boards could charge a weekly fee not exceeding 9 pence. For a limited period the school boards could pay the fees if the parents were unable to do so. The
Voluntary Schools could also receive such payment of fees from the school boards.
They had to guarantee attendance for all children in their respective districts between the ages of 5 and 13. The School Board could appoint officers to enforce attendance. These officers or „Board Men”, as they were commonly known, became one of those terribly menacing figures firmly implanted in the minds of young schoolboys. This figure was an effective deterrent in playing truant. All the more menacing because the child could only picture him in his imagination (if he faithfully attended school, that is!!). He was also known as the School Attendance Officer.
Religious instruction was an integral part of the school curriculum but was not compulsory. This was to be nondenominational.
Since 1870 Voluntary Schools declined except Roman Catholic Schools because
Boards Schools provided better buildings and higher pay for teachers.
Elementary education became effectively free with the passing of the 1891
Education Act.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (III)
Introduction.
In the 20th century Education became a sensitive social, economic and political issue in most European countries. England was no exception. In the history of English education the most important piece of legislation of the twentieth century was the Education Act of 1944, also known as the
„Butler Act”. It replaced all previous legislation.
It became increasingly clear that education was of vital importance to the nation and to the individual and the legislation passed necessarily reflected this conviction. It also reflected political tendencies, as well as the social and economic needs of the nation.
Education of the individual is the foundation of the education of the community. The individual’s needs are not merely academic and neither are those of the community. This comes out quite clearly in the 1944 Education
Act:
„it shall be the duty of the local education authority for every area, so far as their powers extend, to continue towards the spiritual, mental and physical developments of the community”
(1944 Education Act Part II, 7)
If education is to foster the „spiritual, mental and physical” well-being of the community it has to be focused on the „spiritual, mental and physical” well-being of each individual member of that community; education has to be child-centred.
Education not only has to do with communicating academic information but also involves the whole of the person: academic ability, spiritual, physical and vocational needs. It is clearly noticeable in the history of education in England that religion and spiritual values are seen to be of paramount importance. Once again the 1944 Education Act stresses this by stating how the day at school should begin:
„the school day in every county school and in every voluntary school shall begin with collective worship on the part of all pupils in attendance”
In England these dimensions of a pupil’s life have all been considered to be the principal concerns of education throughout the ages, not only in the
20th century.
The same principal was also reiterated in the Education Reform Act 1988
where it states the need for a broadly based curriculum which:
„promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society”
These views are shared by all social classes and political parties. With equal conviction any form of „political indoctrination” has been banned from schools (the second 1986 Education Act). School texts obviously reflect this policy.
THE ENGLISH EDUCATION SYSTEM
What follows cannot be considered a complete description of the educational system in England. The system was and still is more complex than it seems here. What follows merely offers the essential elements, the „backbone” of the system. There is enough information to facilitate comparisons with systems of education in other countries.
Unified or diversified Secondary education?
While there were only Elementary Schools for children between the ages of 5
and 13 problems were limited. There was only one way forward after school –
the working world. There was no possibility of an academic career except for those who could afford it.
The general nature of education changed when it became possible for a restricted number of pupils to gain free places in a Grammar School if they passed an examination at the age of 11. The Elementary School began to consider preparing for the examination as its main function. The examination tested the ability of the children in two subjects only:
English and Arithmetic. Other subjects, therefore, tended to become neglected. Furthermore, the reputation of the school depended mainly on its success rate at this examination.
The examination formed the basis of what is known as the 11plus (11+)
examination. It led to divisions in schools (streaming), in the country (social class distinctions) and also led to irreconcilable political attitudes (Labour v. Conservative) with the Conservative in favour of this selection process and Labour against it. All the opposition against the 11+
exam and the selection process has led to the idea of the modern comprehensive system cherished by Labour and rejected by Conservatives.
Whatever were the arguments for and against the examination it was true that the future life of a child was decided at about 11. Pupils who didn’t sit or who failed the 11+ examination could only gain access to a Secondary
Modern School and later perhaps to a Technical School.
The tripartite system
Before the introduction of Comprehensive Schools the state education system in England was essentially tripartite and was made up of
Grammar Schools
Secondary Modern Schools
Secondary Technical Schools
Grammar Schools.
This type of school catered essentially for those who were interested in pursuing their studies beyond the O-level GCE stage. It provided an academic education for pupils between the ages of 12 and 19. Their pupils came through the selective process of the 11+ examination and therefore these schools had the most academically gifted children. Most of the pupils entered university after school.
It was, rightly or wrongly, seen as a middle class institution.
Secondary Modern Schools
Here the pupils normally attended a four year course leading to the School
Leaving Certificate. The course usually offered instruction in English, at least one other language, geography, history, mathematics, science, drawing, manual instruction or domestic subjects, and physical exercise.
When pupils left school they normally entered into the working world.
The choice of curriculum was not influenced by future academic achievement but was child centred. It developed out of the interests, needs and ability of the children and as they later went to work it obviously had a practical dimension. As there was no external examination to be taken at the end of the course the pupils were not under pressure.
What caused things to change? There was a possibility of staying on for a further year and in the 1950s there was a growing tendency to do so. Those who continued into the 5th year could sit the General Certificate of
Education (GCE).
As a result of the increasing number of pupils taking the GCE the need was felt for a more specific examination adapted to the Secondary Modern
School. In 1963 we have the introduction of a new type of external examination, the Certificate of Secondary Education (C.S.E.) for fifth year pupils.
Secondary Technical Schools
This was the less popular alternative to the Secondary Modern School. Those who failed the 11+ went to a Secondary Modern School but at the age of 12
or 13 could gain a place at a Secondary Technical School.
It is difficult to imagine why it was not successful since this type of school was closely linked to the world of industry and commerce. It provided a general education with special emphasis on technical subjects.
It was definitely more in touch with reality than Grammar Schools and certainly more specifically geared to preparing the pupils for their trade after leaving school.
However, there was a lack of qualified teachers and this must be seen as one cause for its lack of success. Perhaps also there was a marked psychological deterrent. The pupils who had already faced one examination failure (11+) perhaps did not feel inclined to go through the humiliating experience of another possible failure at such an early age. Besides, they had already overcome the pressure of the 11+ exam and now felt psychologically relieved.
The present system
Between the ages of 5 and 11 children attend the primary school and then progress to secondary school level, which normally means entry into a
Comprehensive School.
The tripartite system of secondary education has practically disappeared and has been replaced by the Comprehensive School.
Among the Comprehensive Schools are also the Voluntary denominational schools. Particularly strong are the Roman Catholic Comprehensive Schools.
What is a comprehensive school?
When we say that it incorporates everything in the tripartite system we have said all.
For the sake of clarity we might give the official definition: the
Comprehensive School is a school
„intended to provide all the secondary education of all the children in a given area without an organization in three sides”
These schools take all pupils regardless of ability (except those children with special needs who attend special schools). They therefore cater for children from a variety of social backgrounds, hence the name „comprehensive”. There is no examination or any other selection process for entry.
Comprehensive Schools, however, have not eliminated distinctions. There is what is called „streaming” and „setting” according to learning ability.
This means that students are grouped together in order to achieve a degree of uniformity in classes.
86.8% of pupils in England attend comprehensive schools. There are, however, other types of school: 5.2% attend middle, deemed secondary; 2.6%
attend Secondary Modern; 4.2% Secondary Grammar; 0.1% Technical Schools.
Examinations
After four years of secondary school, at about the age of 16, pupils sit the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examination. This is taken in a wide range of subjects according to the pupils’ ability. Usually four to eight or even as many as ten subjects. The exams are marked by an independent body.
Two years later the students sit another examination called the General
Certificate of Education (GCE) (A Level) again based on a selection of subjects chosen by each candidate (usually three to five and including a science subject and an arts subject). Access to universities is based on the number of examinations taken and the grades achieved. The exact requirements are fixed by the individual universities and vary according to the type of degree course you want to follow.
Here are some links highlighting the debate on grammar schools which still lingers on:
National Grammar Schools Association This site aims to promote the Grammar
Schools in Britain
Say No A useful site in favour of the comprehensive system.
Education Unlimited A useful site for the latest news in the field of education.